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This page has been formatted for online reading and may not print
properly. Click here for the print-friendly PDF format. Index of articles and materials Related Articles Receptive Skills with Young Learners — Inference:
Procedures and Implications for ELT — FCE Listening: Format, Focus & Procedure
— Greek
Results in Cambridge ESOL CPE Exams: Analysis and Explanations (ELT News Exam Survey 2002) — Greek
Results in the fce & cpe Exams: Explanations &
Solutions
(ELT News Exam Survey 1999) |
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This article was published (in three parts) in ELT
News 99-102, May-August 1997. It is an integrated and condensed version of my
two articles ‘Two Birds with one Stone: Exam preparation & reading skills
development using testing materials’ (Current
Issues 4-5, May 1995) and ‘Two Birds with one Stone 2: Exam preparation
& listening skills development using testing materials’ (Current Issues 6, August 1995). |
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Teaching Reading & Listening for Exam Preparation © 1995-1997 Costas
Gabrielatos introduction In Part 1 I
briefly discuss the ‘philosophy’ of exam preparation and provide a framework
for reading/listening lessons. In Part 2 I present
teaching procedures relevant to the different exam exercise types. In Part 3 I suggest
techniques to help learners deal with vocabulary and pronunciation
difficulties. part 1: general teaching guidelineson exam preparation I would like to begin by
stressing that we should not confuse teaching with testing. The fact that we
use testing materials to prepare learners for the exam does not mean that we
should recreate exam conditions. On the contrary, our aim is to provide
learners with methodical guidance and support so as to make them able to
operate successfully under exam conditions. outline of a
reading/listening lesson As a rule of thumb, you can
think of a reading/listening lesson as having the following stages: Before reading/listening This is the stage before
learners actually read or listen to the text. The function of this stage is to
prepare learners to tackle the text and questions as effectively as possible.
This is done by directing learners to activate relevant (language and
general) knowledge and form expectations. That is, before reading or
listening they will have already formed an idea about the content and type of
the text. What is more, they will have limited their expectations of the type
and range of vocabulary they will encounter. This will enable them to
read/listen in a focused and purposeful manner. During reading/listening This is when learners actually
read/listen and answer the questions. Guidance from the teacher is essential
during this stage. After reading/listening This stage can have a variety of
aims and forms. In our case it will be concerned with work on vocabulary attack (i.e. training in
inferring the meaning of unknown vocabulary) and ear-training (i.e. helping learners cope with phonological
difficulties). Feedback & Guidance This is not a distinct stage. Feedback & guidance should take place
throughout the lesson. Here the teacher not only checks whether learners have
got the answers right, but, more importantly, receives information regarding
the procedures through which they decided on an answer. As a general
guideline, do not assume that non-completion of an exercise or wrong answers
necessarily show lack of comprehension; or that correct answers are
necessarily a sign of comprehension. Always check how learners came to a
conclusion, elicit sources of problems and provide guidance regarding effective
reading/listening strategies. Feedback
& Guidance The aim of exam preparation is
for learners to be able to use the procedures described in the article
effectively without being prompted by the teacher or the task. Therefore,
guidance and feedback are vital procedures. This is when the teacher helps
learners to gradually use these procedures ‘automatically’. It follows then that the point
is not so much for learners to come up with the ‘right’ answer/suggestion.
What is of primary importance is for them to understand the way they should
think and the strategies they can employ when performing similar tasks.
Similarly their awareness should be raised regarding ‘tricks’ and pitfalls in
the exam questions. Practical Suggestions Before reading/listening Ø
Ask learners whether the question is about facts or
opinions. Ø
Ask them whether they expect to find the answer in
one specific part of the text, or they will have to combine information from
different parts, or they will have to combine clues from the text with their
own relevant knowledge/experience. During reading/listening When learners seem to have difficulties, guide them to: Ø
become clear about the sequence of events. Ø
read on for more information/clues. Ø
go back to previous parts of the text in order to
trace the beginning of the line of argument, or remind themselves of helpful
clues. When checking answers to an exercise Ø
Do not acknowledge right/wrong answers immediately.
Always ask learners to justify their answers providing evidence from the
text. Ø
Always ask learners to outline the train of thought
which led to their decision. Encourage them to share their approaches and
discuss them. Provide tips regarding effective strategies. Ø
Ask learners whether the answer was located in a
specific part of the text, or it was put together as a puzzle from
information in different parts of the text. Ø
When the right answer has been given ask learners
to look at the other options and discover the hidden pitfalls/tricks. Timing Timing is crucial for both
reading skills and exam training. As skills training is concerned, it is not
enough to ask learners to ‘read quickly’, or to ‘read carefully’; we should
set a time limit so that learners can pace themselves. The time limit should
be appropriate to the level of learners and the length/difficulty of the
text. Of course, the teacher should also keep in mind the time available in
the exam. During exam training the importance of accurate timing is
self-evident. What I would suggest is that
during the initial stages of training the time limit should exceed the exam
limit, so that learners do not become discouraged. The teacher will then
gradually decrease the time available for the reading tasks until learners
are able to successfully complete the task for each text in less time than
they will be allowed in the exam. The reason for this is that learners tend
to under-perform in the exam. using available clues Guide learners to use questions,
statements, pictures as well as the instructions in order to establish the
context (i.e. the time & place, as well as the participants, their
relationship and their purpose). In this way, learners can get the general
idea or form focused expectations about the content. Teachers can include
special slots in lessons aiming at helping learners interpret instructions
and extract clues to context/content. When learners read/listen in such a
focused way they can cope better with difficulties regarding unknown
vocabulary, speed of speaking and phonological aspects. a note on listening It is essential that learners use the first listening to answer all the
questions and the second listening
to check and correct their answers. If they use the first only to get the
general idea and the second to give answers, they will not have the opportunity
to check, but will have to rely on their memory. part 2: dealing with
different exercise types
Multiple Choice (mc) Before (reading & listening) Learners are asked to read the questions and unfinished
statements only - not the mc options - for two reasons: Ø
The distracters may confuse them, particularly
during listening when some words may be misheard. Ø
They waste time checking each MC option against the
text. Some unfinished statements may
need rephrasing before they are given to learners. When rephrasing, the MC
options should be taken into account. Following is an example (from UCLES
1990. Cambridge First Certificate
Examination Practice 4. Cambridge University Press.):
Initially, teachers can write
the questions or rephrased statements on the board to ensure that learners do
not take mc options into
consideration. Nevertheless, learners need to be trained into disregarding mc options unprompted in order to be
able to follow the proposed procedure under exam conditions. Sometimes the
text is accompanied by a title or illustrations. In such a case the teacher
should direct learners to use these as additional clues. Learners say or note
down what they can infer about the text in terms of: Ø
the type of text (e.g. article, advertisement,
excerpt from short story, informal discussion, news broadcast), Ø
the situation (i.e. what they think the text will
be about), or the plot, as well as the participants and their
relationship/roles, Ø
words/expressions they expect to find in the text. During reading Ø Learners
read quickly to check their predictions from the ‘before’ stage. Ø
Learners read carefully and note down their
answers, or complete the unfinished statements (again the mc options are ignored). Ø
Learners read the MC options and choose the one
matching their own answer. Ø
Learners read the text again to check their
answers/choices. During listening Ø Learners
listen and answer the questions in note form. Ø
Between the first and second listening they read
the MC options and choose the one matching their own answer. Multiple Matching (mm) Before Do not give mm options to learners. Instead, ask
them to read/listen for some of the following: general situation; setting
(time & place); writer’s/speaker's identity, purpose/aim,
attitude/feelings. Teachers should consult the exercise first and choose
which aspects they will ask learners to concentrate on. The clues learners
use here are the title and any illustrations/pictures, as well as clues
provided by the lists (e.g. questions, facts,
unfinished statements). During Again learners are asked to
disregard the list of options. They read in order to come up with their own
titles, provide their own answers, locate sources of information/views,
complete unfinished statements etc. Then they check their answers against the
list of options to find the closest match. True/False Before Teachers have two options:
either turn statements into questions (rephrasing them if necessary), or
leave them as they are. The criterion here is whether this transformation
removes helpful clues or not. Let us take the following two examples of T/F
statements (from UCLES. 1993. Cambridge
Proficiency Examinations Practice 5. Cambridge University Press.):
Statement (1) should remain as it is, because its reformulation
to a question (What will the meeting
decide?) will withhold two vital clues: (a)
develop the area = the meeting will
decide on the development of an area. (b)
which team = there are at least two
competing teams/firms interested in undertaking the project. On the other hand, statement (2)
can and should be rephrased as a question: What is the first objector's opinion about the meeting? Not only
are the clues still available to the learners (the first objector = there are at least two people expressing
reservations about the meeting), but also the omission of a waste of time prevents learner bias
during listening. Selection (‘tick what is
mentioned’) Before The list of options includes
distracters, that is items which learners are likely to misunderstand. Their
presence in the list will probably lead uncertain learners towards the wrong
choices. Teachers are advised not to give learners the list, but to devise
questions asking for the same information. Questions can be based on the exercise
instructions, or even be reformulations of them. For example (from UCLES.
1991. Cambridge First Certificate
Examinations Practice 4. Cambridge University Press.):
Sentence completion,
Gap-filling, Note-taking Before Ask learners to decide what type
of information they will have to provide. This helps them restrict the scope
of possible answers. For example, in the text giving information about a Spanish
language course, learners are asked to complete the sentence: Grammar lessons are in.... This
sentence can be completed with three types of information: 'language', 'time
of day', or 'place'. By eliciting this you direct learners to form focused expectations
and avoid providing irrelevant answers. You may also prevent wrong
answers due to grammar/vocabulary shortcomings. For instance, suppose the
text provides the following information: 'in Spanish' and 'at 10 o'clock
every day'. Some learners may not notice the wrong collocation and complete
the sentence with '10 o'clock'. By training learners to consciously pay
attention to such matters you help them avoid similar mistakes in the exam. Note: Train learners to use the following techniques: Ø
Writing parts of words only, e.g. univ for university, Ø
Writing key words (or part of them); that is, words
which will remind them of the whole phrase, Ø
Scribbling instead of trying to write neatly. They will have time to complete
the words/phrases and improve their handwriting during and after the second
listening. Between the first and second listening they should only
concentrate on the content of
their notes. Pictures Although pictures are not
exercise types themselves, they may pose additional problems. It is a good
idea to train learners in the following techniques/ strategies: Ø
Consciously checking they understand the situation
in each picture, Ø
Identifying words/expressions in each picture which
will help them choose the correct option, Ø
Identifying key similarities and differences in the
pictures, Ø
Predicting which elements will help them
differentiate the correct from the wrong options. Note: Deal only with the elements of the pictures which
are relevant to the exercise. Avoid
asking learners to describe the pictures in detail, as this will distract
them. During
listening During the first listening
learners provide answers to the questions or take notes under headings given
by the teacher. Then they look at the exercise and try to find the closest
match to their answers/notes. During the second listening they check their
choices. part 3: vocabulary attack & ear-trainingvocabulary attack Vocabulary & learners On the one hand, one of the main
problems of learners when reading/listening is unknown words/ expressions. On
the other, it is unrealistic to expect learners to have learned all the
vocabulary they are likely to encounter in the exam. It is evident, then,
that helping learners to cope successfully with unknown vocabulary should be
an integral part of the preparation. That is, learners need to be taught how
to: Ø
Distinguish between essential and inessential
vocabulary. Essential vocabulary
is the words/expressions learners need to understand in order to answer the
questions correctly. Inessential
are the ones which do not affect successful completion of the task even when
they are unknown. Ø
Recognise and ignore inessential vocabulary. This
strategy has two positive effects: (a) it helps relieve anxiety as it reduces
the number of unknown words/expressions learners have to cope with, (b) it
saves times as learners do not try to infer the meaning of vocabulary they do
not need. Ø
Infer the meaning of essential unknown vocabulary.
Inference is based on clues provided by the text, the situation, and the
learners’ relevant background knowledge. [See also www.gabrielatos.com/Inference.htm] Vocabulary & teachers Of course, in order to be able to
help learners it is important that teachers themselves are clear regarding
the different categories to which unknown vocabulary may belong. In
particular, teachers need to be aware that unknown vocabulary may not always be inferable. There may be
cases when the text does not provide clues, or learners do not have the
relevant background knowledge or experience. In such cases teachers need to
train learners to expect and tolerate the unknown and guide them to cope as
best they can by using all other clues available. The following table
provides an outline of the categories as well as tips for teachers.
Practical Suggestions Complete text After you have dealt with
exercise answers, give learners two lists: one with unknown vocabulary from
the text and one with their definitions/synonyms. Ask them to match the
vocabulary with the definitions/synonyms. If learners have developed good
inference strategies give them only the list of definitions/synonyms and ask
them to find the corresponding vocabulary in the text. At a higher level of
learner competence, just indicate unknown vocabulary and ask them to infer
their meaning. Note: When providing definitions and synonyms, keep in mind the
following: Ø
They have to be clear and straightforward so that
learners can understand them. Make sure that they are not more
difficult/complicated than the target items in the text Ø
Do not use dense dictionary-type definitions. You
can adapt dictionary definitions or formulate your own. An lengthy but clear
definition is much more helpful than a concise but unclear one Ø
Use the meaning which the words/expressions have in
the text. Remember that the aim is development of inference strategies for
more effective reading -not vocabulary learning. Text with gaps Ø
Before
the lesson, go through the text and blank out unknown
words/expressions. Use the text as if it was complete; tell learners that you
will deal with vocabulary later. Ø
During
reading, ask learners to do the reading exercises as if the gaps
did not exist. Provide guidance regarding clues and inference strategies. If the
word/expression is inessential, ask them to blank it out (using their finger)
and read the problematic part again. If it is essential and inferable, guide
them to look for clues in the surrounding text (e.g. synonyms or
explanations). Alternatively, ask them to use the general meaning of that
part combined with their background knowledge and experience. Ø
After
feedback on exercise answers, ask learners to fill in the blanks
with a suitable word/phrase, or to infer the meaning expressed in the gap. Do not expect learners to come up with
the exact word/expression (remember, the vocabulary in the gaps is unknown). This procedure boosts
learner confidence regarding unknown vocabulary. Learners will feel that
since they are able to understand a text with missing words, they will
certainly cope with one in which the words are there to provide them with
even more clues. It also helps learners become aware of the fact that not all
the vocabulary in a text is essential to completing the task. EAR TRAINING The procedures outlined here
focus on familiarising learners with the organisational and phonological
idiosyncrasies of spoken English. Use of context, content, background knowledge Ø Stop the
tape before the speaker has finished and ask learners to provide a plausible
continuation. Learners should be guided to use any clues available to them.
Such clues are: the situation, what has been said so far, the stressed words,
the speaker's tone of voice etc. Use of phonological clues Ø Stop the
tape and ask learners to repeat the last phrase. There are two steps. First
ask for the phrase in 'ideal' form (i.e. learners pronounce it very clearly).
Then ask them to repeat the phrase as it was pronounced by the speaker. You
can also ask them to describe any differences in pronunciation. They can show
the changes by deleting/changing letters or putting them in parentheses. You
may also need to teach some phonemic symbols. It needs to be stressed that
during such activities you should play the tape as many times as learners need. Ø
Play a short phrase and ask learners to say how
many words they have heard. Elicit and discuss any phonological features
which caused problems or provided helpful clues. Ø
After listening, give learners a short extract from
the transcript and ask them to listen and: -
underline the stressed syllables -
put unstressed vowels into brackets -
cross out vowels/consonants which were not pronounced - |